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(1) ASIA MINOR.
(2) CAUCASIA.
(3) ARMENIA.
(4) SYRIA.
(5) BABYLONIA, ETC.
(6) ARABIA.
(7) PERSIA, ETC.
(10) THE COUNTRY OF THE SINAE (SOUTHERN CHINA).
(11) INDIA.
(12) FURTHER INDIA.
(13) THE INDIAN OCEAN AND ITS ISLANDS
(15) INNER ASIA
Unless where stated otherwise the following names have been taken, directly or indirectly, from Ptolemy's geography.
Bithynia (Ptolemy V 1).
nicomedia (F 42), mod. Ismid.
heraclea (F 42), Heraclea Pontica, mod. Eregli. Asia (E 41), (Ptolemy V 2).
lopardita (E 41), with a Turkish flag (crescent and star in red).
pergama (E 40), Pergamum, mod. Bergama.
cyrinae (E 39), Myrina.
Smyrna (E 38), mod. Ismir.
S. Blacg (E 38).
cnidus (E 36).
sardus (E 40), Sardes.
rodes (E 35); Rhodus is without a flag, although held by the Knights of St. John up to 1522.
licia (F 37), Lycia (Ptolemy V 3).
pultara (E 36), Patara.
abala (F 39)?
Galatia (Ptolemy V 4).
aminßus (F 43), Amisus, mod. Samson.
ancyra (F 39).
angora (F 39), the modern name of Ancyra.
Pamphylia (Ptolemy V 5).
side (F 37), Side, a fishing village; Atalia, the chief town, is omitted.
capadocia (F 40) (Ptol V 6), Cappadocia.
auria (F 40) seems to be a mutilated Caesarea, the mod. Kaisaria (Ptol V 6)
amaßia (F 42), mod. Amasia.
trapezuß (F 43), mod. Trebizonda or Tarabzon, with a Turkish flag (crescent in red). The last Byzantine ruler was beheaded by Mohamed II. in 1461.
ßchißta (F 40), Sebastea of Ptolemy, mod Siwas.
colonia (F 42)?
cilicia (F 38) (Ptolemy V 7).
tarßuß (F 37).
manißtra (F 37), possibly Vesconti's Malinistra at the mouth of the Pyramus, or Jihun, the Malimistra on the Catalan map (1375) and of A. Benincasa (1476).
The only names, on Jomard's and Ghillany's "facsimiles" are Asia, Capadocia, Libia, Cilicia and a town Jarapia. Is this last a corruption of Caesarea?
cipern (F 35), Cyprus, with the flag of Venice. Cyprus was held by the Venetians (to whom it had been ceded by Catarina Cornaro, the widow of the last king of the House of Lusignan, in 1489) up to the year 1570, when the Turks conquered it. back to top
tranißtar fl. (F 47), on Jomard's facsimile only, is the name of a river which Ptolemy, V 9, calls Vardanus, our mod. Kuban.
zichi (F 43), the Zygi or Zichi of Strabo (II 31), the Zinchi of Ptolemy (VI 9), the Ziga of Pietro Visconte, the mod. Jigheti, in the western Caucasus.
phaßis (F 46), Ptol V 9, the modern Rion. Jom has a Lafen fl. which reminds one of the Lazi, to the south of the Phasis (Pliny VI 3).
colchis (F 45), Ptol V 9, mod. Mingrelia.
Jberia (F 45), Ptol V 10, mod. Georgia.
albania (F 43), Ptol V 11, the South-eastern Caucasus towards the Caspian.
porta teßert (F 42), porta de feri, the Iron Gates, Jom and Ghil only. back to top
armenia (F 40), Ptolemy V 12, M. Polo I 13.
ßala (F 41).
arche Noe (F 41), the Ark of Noah on a lofty mountain, the Ararat, according to the ancient legends. It already figures on the Map of St. Jerome (Miller, III., 6).
mart (F 39), Mardi of Ptol V 13, M. Polo's Maredin (I 13), mod. Mardin. back to top
Sijria (F 35), Syria.
harara (F 35)?
antiochia (F 33), far inland.
haleb (F 34), the ancient name of a town better known by its Italianised name of Aleppo, the Beroea of Ptolemy (V 15).
tripoliß (F 33), mod. Tripoli.
ßidon (F 32), mod. Saida.
tyruß (F 31), mod. es Sur, or Tyre.
damaßcus (F 31).
paleßtina (F 29), Palestine.
Judes (F 29), Judea.
Jerußalem, not even the picture of a town is given, but a Saint (St. Peter?) kneels on its site (F 30).
neapolis (F 31), mod. Nablus.
gaza (F 29), mod. Ghuzzeh.
Mount Sinai is shown, but no name is attached to it.
mesopotamia (F 35), Ptol V 17.
babilon (F 34), Ptol V 19.
caldea (F 31), with a coat of arms. Ptol V 19.
beym (F 33), in W. desert; Paris facs. only.
oliba (F 32), Jom and Ghil only.
zimbo (F 30), gemba of Jom and Ghil, Ptolemy's Jamba?
aßßiria (F 35 and 36), Assyria (Ptol VI 1). A coat of arms separates it from Parthia.
The following names are from Ptolemy:
arabia deßerta (F 30), Ptol V 18, the Syrian desert.
arabia petrea (F 27), Ptol V 16, the Sinai Peninsula, etc.
arabia felix (F 19), Ptol VI 7, Yemen.
olbana (F 17), Albana (Ptol VI 7), mod. Khaçuf.
latha (F 15), Laththa (Ptol VI 7), mod. Kothbu.
tamocha (F 10), Jom and Ghil Amacha, Ptol Mardache, W. of Aden.
Ahamarna (F 25) perhaps Aramava, Ptol VI 7.
rhatip (F 27), Rhadu vicus (Ptol VI 7), Jom and Ghil only.
arno (F 27), Arre (Ptol V 7), mod. Hayil.
ßeira ßabi (F 13), the Sabe regia, Ptol VI 7, mod Sab.
metrobel (F 13), perhaps Macpha metropolis, Ptol VI 7, mod Magfa.
Sia (F 12), perhaps Syagros Prom VI 7.
Other well-known places in Arabia:
mahometgrab (F 26), Mohamed's Tomb at Medina.
mecca (F 24).
saba (F 13), the traditional residence of the Queen of Sheba (1 Kings X.), now Jebel Saber, on the road from Aden to Marib. Jom and Ghil have a royal tent, instead of a patch of forest as on the original.
ßochar (F 15), mod. Sohar, in Oman.
Islands on the coast of Arabia (Ptol VI 7):
jheaia (F 26), Ichara, mod. Abu Ali I.
ocha (F 25), on site of Ptolemy's Tharo, mod. Tarut.
chilus (F 25), Tylus (Chilus of Ulm edition of 1482), mod. Owal (Bahrein).
ßerapion (G 19), Sarapidis I, mod. Masirah.
cinobo Inßeln (F 15), Zenobii I, mod. Kurlan Murian.
onganon (G 20), Organa I, mod. Masirah.
The following towns of Arabia, mentioned by Marco Polo (Pipino, III. 43-6, Ramusio III. 40-43, Yule's 3rd edition III. 36-39), are placed in Africa or India owing to a misprint or clerical error in Marco Polo's narrative, where Escier is said to lie S.E. (instead of N.W.) of Aden.
adem (F 12 in Africa, H 16 in India).
eßcier (H 17, in India) mod. Shehr.
dulfai (H 17 in India), mod. Dafar.
kalajati (G 21 in India), now Kalayati in Oman.
The following names I have not been able to trace elsewhere or identify :
gurano (F 26), Paris facs. only.
maizoma (F 25), Jom and Ghil only.
erpi (F 23).
cargolo (F 22), Jom: carguco.
Erfant (F 22).
ßagen (F 22).
ßatna (F 22), Ghil: falua.
tac (G 23), Jom and Ghil only.
anec (F 20), do.
aleßeres (F 17).
natirri (F 18), Jom and Ghil only.
manna (F 17), identical with
mema (F 16), Jom and Ghil only .
henca (F 14).
thiuck (F 15).
bifa (F 19).
guro (F 21).
agraton (F 21).
neßtra (F 22).
godosia (F 22), Jom and Ghil. Perhaps Gedolia, the country of King Balthasar according to Otto of Freisingen.
ßanami (F 23), Ghil: sanu vernitu.
boro (F 21).
ibry (F 24).
ßeth (F 28).
The following names are from Ptolemy :
media (F 38), Ptol VI 2, mod. Irak.
idriara (G 33), Jom and Ghil: adriacat. Perhaps Andriaca, Ptol VI 2.
Sußana (F 31), Susiano, Ptol VI 3, now Khuzistan.
Sußas (F 32), Susa, Ptol VI 3, ruins 35 m. W.N.W. of Shushter.
gran (F 32), Graan, Ptol VI 3.
raxiana (F 28), Taxiana I, Ptol VI 3.
perßia (F 32), Persis, Ptol VI 4, now Farsistan.
perßepolis (G 32), Ptol VI 4, ruins 30 m. N.E. of Shiraz.
cherßanßy (F 30), Chersonesus extrema, Ptol VI 4.
jonan (F 34), Jonacapolis, Ptol VI 4.
tabiama (F 28), Tabiana, I., Ptol VI 4.
Joptha (F 29), Sophtha I., Ptol VI 4.
parthia (G 34), Ptol VI 5, now Khorasan.
caramania (G 32), Carmania, Ptol VI 8, mod. Kirman. salis (G 26), Sabis, Ptol VI 8.
aria (G 32 and 34), Arai, Ptol VI 8, W. Afghanistan with Herat.
oragiana (G 22), tracpana of Jom and Ghil, Drangiana, Ptol VI 19, mod. Seistan.
asta (G 29), Asta, Ptol VI 20.
aracoßio (G 30), Arachosia, Ptol VI 20, Eastern Afganistan.
ostaca (G 29), Asiaca, Ptol VI 20.
parapaßnia (G 36), Parapanisus mons, Ptol VI 18, now Kuhi Baba and Hindukush.
gedroßia (G 26), Gadrosia, Ptol VI 21, mod. Baluchistan.
The following names are found in Marco Polo :
tauriß (F 38), M. Polo I 18, mod. Tabriz. East of it miniature of three travellers (the Polos with their nephew).
Jrak (F 39), M. Polo I 18.
spaan (G 39), M. Polo I 19: Ystavith, mod. Ispahan.
schiraß (F 35), M. Polo I 19, Shiraz.
yasdi (G 34), M. Polo I 20; mod. Yezd.
comada (G 31), M. Polo I 22: comandu, now Shahr i Dakianus.
ormus (G 26), on an island, and the names Ormuß and Ormes (G 24), on the mainland, at the mouth of the Sea of Persia, representing modern Ormuz (Hormuz) and the mainland, Harmozia of Ptolemy (M. Polo I 23-24).
tarman (G 31), M. Polo I 21, 24, should be Carman, the mod. Kirman.
arochain (G 38), called thymochayn in Pipino's version (I 27), tonocain or timochain in others, identified by Yule with the hill country (Kuhistan) between Tun and Kain, corresponding to Ptolemy's Hyrcania.
konikreich chesmakoran (K 26), M. Polo III 36, now Kej Mekran, to the west of the Indus. Behaim places it in China!
The following I have not been able to trace :
heleu (F 37).
patuna (F 36).
bear (F 37).
maboro (F 39).
wißte (G 36). ?Wüste, Desert.
carco (G 34), Jom and Ghil: Corus. Above it two kneeling figures and two travellers.
zang (G 39), Jom and Ghil only.
pinßa (G 39).
miraba (G 39), Jom and Ghil: Raba.
aßateßai (G 33).
ripa (G 35).
Jphanaea (G 30).
aha, on coast (F 29), Jom only.
mocha (F 30).
bona (F 33), Ghil only.
sopella (F 31), Jom and Ghil.
rota (G 30).
sedia (G 28).
cadro (G 27).
Jopa (G 24), Ghil: jarte.
luna (G 33), with a flag with three spread eagles.
getta, an island (G 19).
oragi (G 22), with a flag showing an anchor.
arizo (G 22).
baranka reg. (G 25), Jom: Karama reg, Ghil: parama reg. Perhaps Karamania?
ßandria (G 27).
arreda (G 29).
pabeij (G 28).
merocau (G 25).
Zodra (G 25).
patan (G 28).
(Ptolemy VII., c. I.)
India intra Gãge (G 24).
Indus fl. (G 22).
namand fl. (G 18), Jom and Ghil only; Namadus flumen, mod. Narmada, at Bharoch (anc. Barygaza).
canaßa (H 28), Carnasa (Kaisana) has been identified with Pliny's Cartana, a town on the Panjshir.
tampete (H 38), Lambatae, the inhabitants of mod. Lamghan, on the northern bank of the Kabul.
caßpicia (H 36), Caspiria, mod. valley of Kashmir. clindima (H 36), Cylindrimae, at the sources of the Ganges and Jamna.
peßule (H 33), Passala, mod. Bisauli in Rohilkhand.
trani (H 30), Toana, a town of the Nanichae, on the Jamna.
gangan (H 30), Gangani, which should be read, Tanganoe, an heroic race along the E. bank of the Upper Ganges.
mauage fl. (G 18), called Ongonna (H 26) in its upper course; Nanaguna fluvius, mod. Tapti.
borig (G 15), Baris, but Ptolemy's Pseudostonis is thus named by Behaim, whilst a river described as
borig borie (H 14), Jom and Ghil: boriaat bosis, corresponds to Ptolemy's Baris. They are both rivers of Limyrike, and enter the lagoons of Cochin or Quillon.
cardelis (H 17), Berderis (Bideris), perhaps Erod, near the Kaveri.
selur (H 17), Selur, a city of the Carcae.
ßolur (H 16), Ghil: Solusa, Solene fl, now river Tamraparni, which enters the Gulf of Manar.
zora archota (H 21), Sora Arcati. Sora is the northern Tamil country. Arcatus, mod. Arkad, was a city of it.
martha (H 21), Sangemarta, a town near the former.
ßobara (H 15), Ghil: Isobara; Sabura, now Cuddalore.
chaberg (H 17), not a mountain but Chaberus fl., mod. Kaveri.
Cyma fl. (H 13), Tyna fl., identified with the Penn-ar.
Connaßilla (H 12), Contacossyla, a town, inland, near the Krishna.
adißani (H 23), Adisathrus mons, the Western Ghats.
bozala (H 18), Cocala, in the Gangetic Gulf.
azoma (H 20), Ozoana, perhaps Seoni, 60 m. N.E. of Nagpur.
raßtro (H 20), Castra, a town of the Salaconi, W. of the Godaveri.
M 2
ßogata (H 23), Sagoda, now Ayodhya or Audh.
deßam (H 22), Dosara, mod. River Vaitarani.
daß gebirg (H 26), "the mountain" occupies the site of Uxontus mons, the E. continuation of the Vindhyas.
maliba (H 27), Maliba, a city of the Adeisathri in central India.
ganges fl., Ganges Aurea Regio (H 20). Ptolemy mentions no gold in connection with the Ganges or the Gangaridae.
arcin regno (G 20), Jom and Ghil: arcia, Ariaca regio, Ptol.
nopoli (G 18), Deopali in Ariaca, mod. Devgadh.
casta (G 22), perhaps Osta, a town of the Rhamnai.
zodra (G 25), Xodraca, E. of the Indus, in the Ran of Kachh.
In addition to the above the following localities, included by Ptolemy (VII 2) in India extra Gangem, are situated in reality within India as understood by us.
amnacha (H 34), Aminachae, Himalayan tribe, N. of the Brahmaputra.
torori (H 30), Tacoraei, now represented by the Dakhana and Dehra in Rajputana.
bereia (H 28), Boraeta, perhaps Bharoch in Audh.
das gebirg (H 28), these "Mountains" correspond to Bepyrus mons, that part of the Himalaya between the Saraya and Tista rivers.
dramas fl. (I 15), Ghil: damas fl., Doanas fluvius, now known as Brahmaputra.
ponoro (I 22), Posinara.
das gebürg damaßi (I 30), Damasa montes, the Eastern Himalaya in Bhutam.
deana (I 35), Doanae, a tribe in Eastern Assam.
(Ptolemy VII., c. 2.)
India (H I 30).
cathabeda (H 20), Catabeda fl., the river of Chittagong.
topliora (H 18), Jom and Ghil: Copicora with a flag (green with a red harp), Baracura emp., mod. Ramu, S.S.E. of Chittagong.
cora (I 17) Jom: iaca, Ghil: Coba and Lioro, a mutilation of Tocosana fl., mod. Arakan or the Naf.
befugu regio (I 13), and Befugu Ara (I 15) seems to stand for Basinga, a mart, a river, and a cannibal tribe, which has been identified with Bassein and its river.
teneda (I 8), Temgla, a city near Cape Negrais.
aucea chßoreßs (I 4), Aurea Chersonesus, a general name for the Malay Peninsula.
Syndo (I 13), Synda civitas and the Syndi, a coast town, near Pulo Sondur.
meandra gebirge (I 20), Meandrus mons, the Yuma chain in E. Arakan.
ßerus fl. (I 20), perhaps the mod. Mekong.
vatcitis regio (I 19).
calcitis regnum hie ßind vil golt perg (I 24), Chalcitis regio in qua plurima aeris metalla. This copper (not gold) country has been identified with the country of the Laos.
(Ptolemy VII., c. 3.)
Samandra das gebirg (I 31), Semanthinus mons, a fabulous mountain range to the East.
aßpiata (I 26), Aspithra, a river, a town, and a tribe. Jom and Ghil name this river Cathabeda, the towns next to it topierra, and the river which enters the sea near it iaca or coba, all names which properly belong to the country East of the Ganges.
achabala (I 23), Achatara, a town.
achatra (I 19), Achadrae, a tribe.
aramea (I 17), Brama, a town.
Jtio . pi . agi (I 14), Ichthyophagi Aethiopes. Jom and Ghil here show a town (Rhabana of Ptolemy?) with a flag, not visible on the original. These Ethiopian Fish-eaters seem to have occupied the coast of Southern China.
Then follows the following legend :
Nit ferner hot uns tholomeus die welt beßchriben aber ander hat uns Marco Polo und Mandavilla geßchriben.
Ptolemy has described the world no further, but the remainder has been described by Marco Polo and Mandavilla.
surate (I 45) Ghil: Soram, Surata.
stare (I 5 s) Jom and Ghil: Stano, seems to stand for statio, the last word in the legend: "Cattigara Sinarum statio." This seems more reasonable than to assume a corruption of thinae or Sine. Cattigara has been identified with M. Polo's Quinsay, the mod. Hang-chau-fu, whilst the capital of the Sinae has been sought on the Hwang-ho (Lo-yang) or its tributary the Wei-ho (at M. Polo's Quen-zan-fu, the mod. Si-ngan-fu).
totaco fl. (I 8 s), Cotiaris fluvius, perhaps the river of Canton.
Place names according to Marco Polo:
bangala konikreich (K 42), bãgala (G 15), Bengal.
murfuli regio (J 13), konikreich murfili (J 14 s), M. Polo III 29, with a royal tent and the following legend beneath it:
In vil von de gebirg find man edelgeßtein und deamant aber um der schlangen willen ßind ßie verkumen.
In many of the mountains are found precious stones and diamonds, but owing to the serpents they are?
Murfuli must be looked for on the Coromandel coast at Masulipatem; the precious stones point to the famous mines of Golconda.
maabar (I 12 s), on S.E. coast of India. See St. Thomas.
kael (I 10 s), M. Polo III 30, a town of Maabar, mod. Kayal in Tinnevelly.
war daß konikreich (I 19 s), Far or War, mod. Warawar, is only mentioned in the Latin version of M. Polo's Travels (III 24):
das volkh dißes konikreich und landes waar geht nacket und pettet ein ochßen an.
The people of this kingdom and country War, go naked and worship an ox.
kumani (J 18 s), M. Polo III 32: Comari, usually identified with Cape Comorin, but J. Codine (`Mem. géogr. sur la mer des Indes,' 1866) advances reasons in favour of Calicut.
konikreich koulam (I 8 s), M. Polo III 31: coylû, Quilon.
konikreich dely (J 3 s), M. Polo III 33; near Mount Dely, N. of Cananor. On Doppelmayr's facsimile Tasib occupies the place of Dely.
hie in dißen konikreich pettet daß volk apgötter an.
Here, in this kingdom, the people worship idols.
lac en konikreich (I 14 s), M. Polo III 30: lach, other versions loac, lar. Yule identifies it with Ptolemy's Larica, which included N. Konkan and Guzzerat.
daß gebirg (I 16).
konikreich guzzerat (I 10), M. Polo III 35, Guzurath of Pipino's version.
kanem (I 7), M. Polo III 35, tana of Pipino, kanem of Ramusio, mod. Thana to the N. of Bombay.
konikreich kambaja (J 1), M. Polo III 36, with a royal tent. It is the Kambayet of the Arabs, our Cambay, an important trading town.
konikreich servenath, (J 13) M. Polo III 36, Pipino's version Semenath; now Pattan Somnath, opposite Diu. The legends about spices and musk, near Kambaja and Servenath are undoubtedly out of M. Polo, but do not refer to these countries, where no spices are found. They are as follows :
hie ißt allerlei Specerei und gewürz (J 7). In dießem wald wechßt vjl holz Specerein (J 11). do wächst moscat (J 3).
Here are various kinds of spice and grocery. In this forest grows much wood (?aloe wood), spices. Here grows nutmeg.
India potalis (J 10 s), or patalis, conjectured to mean open, accessible India, but no doubt the famous Patala (mod. Hydrabad) on the Lower Indus (Ptol VII 1), Pliny's Patalis or Patala (II 75, VI 23), Roger Bacon's and Pierre d'Ailly's Regio Pathalis in India, or Lasalle's Patalie regio, which in that author's rough map of the World is placed in a fictitious Southland.
Place names from other sources or not traced:
India ßenda (H 25) Jom and Ghil: India penida, read India Secunda, i.e., India between Indus and Ganges.
telong p. (H 21), Jom and Ghil: teleng, Fra Mauro's Telenge, Friar Jordanus' Telenc, the Mohit's Telenga, acc. to Al. Cunningham (`The Ancient Geography of India,' (I. 519), Telingora, mod. Haidarabad.
himpela (G 14).
aßpino (H 33).
horo (H 32).
raplin (H 31).
thama (H 29).
opo (H 29).
abaße (H 26), perhaps Ptolemy's Dabasae (VII 2), mod. Dimasas, on Mount Mandras.
cigote (H 26).
tholomais (H 23), Jom and Ghil: thalomanss.
coraßte (H 19).
merabe (H 17), perhaps Ptolemy's Mapura (VII 1).
ßißon (H 24), Sison crinitum a plant.
suto (H 24).
thizar (H 21).
roadßan (H 20).
nort (H 32).
capra (H 21).
carmo (H 29).
cadapa (H 27), mod. Kadapa in Madras, 14° N. 79° E.
taroa (H 33), Tarai?
geana (H 30).
gnanal (H 28).
mangeia (H 39).
munco (H 15).
cripa (H 14).
ceng (H 17).
catan (H 14).
Jaebo (H 13).
tabit (H 12), Ghil: jabit.
Jario (H 14), Ghil: Jaria.
ßobara (H 14).
mocoda (H 13).
orond (H 18), Oroudian mts., the northern section of the Western Ghats.
manago (H 13) is the maesolus fl. of Ptolemy, the Manada of the Ulm edition of Ptolemy (1482) and of Waldseemüller (1507).
Ciamba konikreich (J 26), ciamba (K 26), mod. Cochinchina.
ciamba porto (K 24), perhaps mod. Phun-ri.
cyamba daß gebirg (J 7 and 17), mountains of Ciamba.
Ciamba ein konikreich do gibt mã corallen stat münz außs (J 20).
Ciamba, a kingdom where corals are used in the place of coin.
M. Polo (II 37) says this of Tibet, but not of Ciamba.
das konikreich Ciamba ist vol thier bißam thier do wachßt vil mancherlei Specerei das holz aloe ebany das volk sind abgetter und haben beßondere Sprach (J 18).
The kingdom of Ciamba is full of musk deer. Various spices grow there in plenty, also aloe wood and ebony. The people are idolaters and have a language of their own.
Neither musk nor spices are mentioned by M. Polo as products of Ciamba, but aloes, ebony and elephants.
loach (J 5 s); M. Polo III 11: laach, other versions locac; on the mainland: lower Siam.
daß lant hot drey konik.
The country has three kings.
M. Polo only knows of one king.
The names Menam ken (J 5 s) in Loach, and Menam fl. (J 11 s), are found only on the Paris Globe (see p. 61).
The following are not mentioned by M. Polo; they may be in Tibet :
lamacin ßee (J 20), Jom and Ghil have a tent to the west of this lake which is not on the original. Waldseemüller (1507) has a Lama lacus.
lanna (J 12), a town. It is G. Leardo's Llana (1448), Waldseemüller's Lamia civitas (1507).
Incian fl (J 7). This river is shown as a headstream of the Caramoran.
Other places, apparently in Further India or, at all events, beyond the Ganges, are :
naptas (I 22).
nijches p. (I 20).
daß gebirg nijhen (J 24), Jom and Ghil: gebirg myter.
Jrab allt fl. (I 20), a river identical with Ptolemy's Dorius fl. (VIII 21).
regioza (I 20).
Dißßama (I 38), perhaps Ptolemy's Adisaga in the valley of the Brahmaputra.
abef (I 30).
marco ... (I 32), the beginning of an obliterated legend: Marco Polo ....
thering (I 33).
ßogan (I 32), perhaps Ptolemy's Sagoda (VII 2), mod. Ayodhya.
deßar (I 33).
comau (I 35).
trißtact (I 39).
Marco polo ßchreibt uns im 3 buch am 38 capitel daßs warlich die ßchiffleuth befundê ßeyen worden daßs in dißem jndianißchen merr ligen mer dan 12,700 jnsula di bewont ßind und welichen ßindt vil mit edelgeßtein perlein und mit golt pergen andere vol 12 lei ßpecerey und wunderlichen volckh dauon lang zu ßchreiben hie findt man vil meerwundter von Serenen und ander fisßchen. Vnd ob jemandt von dießen wunderlichen volchh und ßelzamen vißchen im möer oder thieren auf dem erdreich begert zu wißßen der leßs die bücher plini jßidori arißtotoleßs strabonis und ßpecula vincenzi vil anderer lehrer mer.
do findt man von den wunderlichen leutten in den Jnßeln und auf dem möer von meer wundern und wa ßelzamer thier auf erdreich und in den Jnßeln võ würzen und edelgeßtein wachßen (M 7).
Marco Polo in the 38th chapter of the 3rd book states that the mariners had verily found in this Indian Ocean more than 12,700 inhabited islands, many of which yield precious stones, pearls and mountains of gold, whilst others abound in twelve kinds of spices and curious peoples, concerning whom much might be written. Here are found sea-monsters, such as Sirens and other fish. And if anyone desire to know more of these curious people, and peculiar fish in the sea or animals upon the land, let him read the books of Pliny, Isidor (of Seville), Aristotle, Strabo, the `Specula' of Vincent (of Beauvais) and many others. There he shall find accounts of the curious inhabitants, of the islands, the monsters of the ocean, the peculiar animals on the land and of the islands yielding spices and precious stones. See p. 62.
Taprobana (H 5), with a royal tent.
modin (H 9), Moda of Ghil.
ßcorria (H 8), fcte of Ghil.
samia (H 6), Samfu?
cap frazio (H 6), captran of Ghil.
Taprobana von dißer jnsel ßchreibt man man unßs vil edler ding in den alten hißtorien wie ßy alexander magno geholffen haben und gen rom zogen ßindt mit den römern und kaißer pompejo geßellßchaft gemacht haben diße jnßel hat umbfangen 4,000 meil und ißt getheilt in vier konikreich in welichen vil goldtes wechßt auch pfeffer camphora lignum aloes auch vil goltßandt das volk pet abgotter an und ßindt großß ßtark leut und gut aßtronomi.
Many noble things are said about this island in ancient histories, how they (the inhabitants) helped Alexander the Great and went with the Romans to Rome in the company of the Emperor Pompey. This island has a circuit of 4,000 miles, and is divided into four kingdoms, in which is found much gold and also pepper, camphor, aloe wood and also gold sand. The people worship false gods: they are tall, stout men, and good astronomers.
Seilan jnßula ein der beßte jnßul in der welt aber dê mer hat ßie abgeben müßßen (I 3O s).
In dißer jnßell findt man vil edelgeßteins perlein oriental der konik dißer jnßul hat den größten and ßchönßtê rubin den man in der welt je geßah daßs volkh gehet nakhet man und frawen kain korn wechßt alda dan rais (J 38 s).
Jr konik ißt niemandt underworffen und betten abgotter an die jnßul Seilan hat im craißs 2,400 meil als enßs ßchreibt marco polo im driten buch am 19 capitel (I 46 s).
Jtem in vergangenen Jaren ßchickht der großs kaißer in cathay ain potßchaft zu dißen konik von seilan lißs an in begern zu haben dißen rubin ßich erpietent großsen ßchatz dafür zu geben alßo gab der konik zu antwort wie daßs dißer ßtein ßeiner vorfahren ßo lang geweßt wer ßo ßtüendt in ebel an daßs er der ßolt ßein der diesen ßtain dem landt ßolt empfrembten der rubin ßoll anderthalb ßchuh lang ßein und ain spann brait on alle mackhel (I 19 s).
The island Seilan, one of the best islands in the world, but it has lost in extent to the seas.
In this island Seilan are found many precious stones and oriental pearls. The King of this island possesses the largest and finest ruby ever seen in the world. The people, men and women, go naked. No corn grows there, only rice.
Its king is subject to no one, and they pray to false gods. The island Seilan has a circuit of 2,400 miles, as is written by Marco Polo in the 19th chapter of the third book.
Item, in past times the great Emperor of Cathai sent an ambassador to this King of Seilan, asking for this ruby and offering to give much treasure for it. But the King replied that this stone had for a long time belonged to his ancestors, and it would ill become him to send this stone out of the country. The ruby is said to be a foot and a half in length and a span broad, and without any blemish.
Marco Polo's Seilan is undoubtedly our Ceylon, and all that is said will be found in Pipino's version III 22, in Ramusio's III 19.
Java minor diße jnßel hat umbfangen 2,000 welßch meil und hat in ir acht konikreich und haben ein besundere Sprach und betten abgötter an do wechßt auch allerlei Specerey jn den konikreich boßsman genant find man vil ainhörner helfanten und affen die menschen angeßicht und glidtmaßs haben jtem wechßt kain korn da ßy machen aber prot außs reis an weinßtatt trinken ßy ßafft der aus paumen tropft den man findt rot und weißs und ißt ain redlich guet getranck von geßchmackh deßs haben ßy nach notturfft genug in dem konikreich Samara aber in konikreich genanth Dageram ißt gewonheit ßo ir abgott sagt daßs ein krancker menßch ßterben ßoll so erßticket man dea kranckhen bey zeit und die freundt kochen das flaißsch irs krancken freundt und eßsen jne mit einander mit großsen freudten auf daßs er den Wurmen nit zuthail werde. Aber in konikreich Jambri haben die leutt man und frawen hinden ßchwenz gleich die hundt do wechßt uber trefflich vil Specerey und allerlei thier alßs ainhörner und andere jm andern konikreich fanfur do wechßt der beßt camphor in der welt den man mit golt abwigt daßelbßt ßind gross gewachßen paumen da zwißchen holz und rinden außs dem Safft mehl würdt daßs guet zu eßsen ißt und marco polo ßchreibt in ßeinem dritten buch am dem 16. Capittel er ßey fünf monath in dißer jnßell geweßt (J 42 s).
Java Minor. This island has a circumference of 2,000 Italian miles, and within it are eight kingdoms. They have a language of their own and worship idols. Various kinds of spices grow there. In the kingdom of Bosman are found many unicorns (rhinoceros), elephants and monkeys, who have human faces and limbs. No corn grows there, but they make bread of rice, and instead of wine they drink the sap which trickles from trees; it is found red and white, and furnishes a tasty good drink, of which they have as much as they need in Semara. In the kingdom of Dageran it is the custom that when their idol says that a sick person is about to die they suffocate the patient in time, and his friends cook the flesh of their sick friend and eat it with much rejoicing in order that the worms may not have it. But in the kingdom of Jambri men and women have tails like dogs. Excellent spices grow there and various animals are found, such as unicorns and others. In the kingdom of Fanfur is found the best camphor in the world, which is worth its weight in gold; there are tall trees, the sap of which, between the wood and the bark, is converted into flour (sago), which is good to eat. Marco Polo, in the 16th chapter of the third book, says that he spent five months in this island. (M. Polo's five months refer to Samara only.)
The Java Minor of Marco Polo is Sumatra. The information given in the above legend is derived from Pipino's version book III. 13-19. The reference to a five months' residence is to be found in c. 16 as stated. The eight kings are made to dwell in four tents. The little monkey on the south coast is referred to in c. 15.
felech (J 36 s) (perta or pertes of Jom and Ghil), called ferlach in Pipino's version, has been identified with Perlak.
boßna (J 36) (Pipino's bosman, the basma of others) has been identified with Paseir, on the north coast.
ßama, Samara (J 39 s), corrupted by Ghil into fomat, the modern Samalanga on the north coast.
dragojan (J 41 s), called dageram in a legend, corrupted by Jom and Ghil into reagasio or reagario. Yule places it near Pedir.
lambri (J 38 s), Jomard's Cambia, a place on the west coast, south of Achin.
fanfur (J 40 s), or more correctly fanfur, the modern Baros on the west coast.
camba (J 38 s) is not named by Marco Polo, but shown by Jom and Ghil. It may be a duplicating lambri.
Java major (K 17 s), with a royal tent; mod. Borneo.
vilangat (K 21).
fidama (K 27).
ßoipo (K 22), Ghil: Scipo.
On the coast a pfeffer walt (K 25 s) or "Pepper woods." It need hardly be mentioned that the plant yielding our pepper is a creeper or a climbing plant.
Jtem alßs man außs des großen koniks in cathay landt von dem konikreich ciamba gegê orient genant fährt 1,500 welßcher meiln, ßo kumbt man in diße jnßell gefaren genant Jaua major die hat umbfangen 3,000 welßche meiln der konik dißer jnßell ißt niemandt unterworffen und petn abgotter an man findt auf dißer jnßell allerley specerey alßs pfeffer mußcat plüet ßpinart galgan cubebon gariofilli negel zimeth und allerlei würz vaßt diejenigen die man da verkauft darnach außsthailt in alle welt darum gewonlich vil kaufleuth daßelbßt ligen (K 16 s).
If one sails out of the kingdom Ciamba, which is in the country of the great King of Cathai, 1,500 Italian miles to the east, one arrives at this island, called Java Major, which has a circumference of 3,000 Italian miles. The King of this island is subject to no one; the inhabitants worship idols. Various spices, such as pepper, mace, spikenard, galangale [which yields a kind of ginger], cubebs, caryophylli [and] cloves, cinnamon abound, and those sold are afterwards distributed throughout the world, for which reason many merchants are generally to be found there.
The following legend stands between Java Major and Neucuran :
In dißen jnßeln wachßen vil rubin smarackhen topaßßen und saffiren auch perlein oriental faßt vil (J 20 s).
In these islands grow many rubies, emeralds, topazes, sapphires, and oriental pearls in plenty.
Java Major may safely be identified with Borneo, known to the natives, according to Sir Thos. Stamford Raffels (`The History of Java,' Lond., 1817, I., p. 1), as Gana or Nusa Jawa, the land or island of Java.
The contents of the first legend are wholly derived from Marco Polo (Pipino's version III 10), with only this exception, that the famous traveller does not include cinnamon among the products of the island.
Jnßula pentan, Jnßel pentan, with a royal tent (J 27 s).
Als man ßegelt vom konikreich qenant loach gegen mittagwarz kumbt man in diße jnßel pentan in der großs wäldt und von kößtlich geßchmakh [geruch, odoris] das möer hier umb ist niederer über zehen ßchritt dißs ßchreibt marco polo am 9 capitel im drittem buch daßs volkh geht alles nacket (J 17 s).
If you sail from the kingdom of Loach to the southward, you reach this island Pentan, where there are large forests of delicious perfume. The sea around is less than ten paces deep. Thus writes Marco Polo in the 9th chapter of the third book. All the inhabitants go naked.
Pentan has been identified by Marsden and Yule with Binteng in the Strait of Malacca.
Behaim in this instance quotes Ramusio's version. Marco Polo gives the sea a depth of four fathoms (Pipino: passus) or 20 feet; he says nothing about the people going about naked.
Neueuocan Insula (J 24 s), neucuran of the legend, Pipino's Necuran, the Necuveran of other versions, is generally identified with one of the Nikobar Islands, and is undoubtedly the Nicoveran of Odorico of Pordenone, the inhabitants of which have dog-faces like those of Marco Polo's Angaman. This identification I accept. Prof. G. Schlegel (`Problèmes Géographiques,' No. 16) identifies it with Nakur of the Chinese, that is Sumatra, the inhabitants of which are similarly described as having dog-faces.
jm dritten buch von marco polo am 20 capittel findet man geßchrieben daßs dieße Jnsel neucuran genant ligt bey 150 welßche meil von der jnßel Java maior und in derßelben jnßel wachßen die mußcatt zimeth negel vaßt vil auch findt daßelbßt wäldt von lautter ßandelholz und von allerlei specerey (J 10 s).
In the third book of Marco Polo cbapter 20, it is stated that this island Neucuran is at a distance of 150 Italian miles from the Island Java major, and that nutmegs, cinnamon and cloves grow plentifully in that island, and that there are forests of sandal wood and of various spices.
hie ißt gefunden worden zu Johan de Mandavilla zeiten ein Jnßel mit volk die allegleich hundtshaupt hetten und da mag man den meerßtern der bey uns geheißßen ißt polus arcticus nit ßehen di da faren auf dem möer die mußßen nach dem aßtrolabio ßegeln dann der compaßß nit zaigt (H 33 s).
Here was discovered in the time of John de Mandavilla an island inhabited by men having dogs' heads, and there the Sea-star, called Polus Arcticus by us, is not visible, and those navigating the sea must do so with the help of the astrolabe, for the compass does not point (see p. 14).
Friar Odorico, c. 24, describes the inhabitants of Nicoveran as having dogs' faces; Mandeville, c. 18, improving upon this, gives them dogs' heads.
The second part of the legend refers to a superstition of the Middle Ages, according to which the magnet failed to point to the north as soon as the lodestar sank below the horizon. Marco Polo (I 1) and Nicolo Conti merely state that the compass is unknown to the sailors in the Indian Ocean.
Angaman Insula (K 35 s), one of the Andaman Islands.
ritroni (ridrani of Jom and Ghil).
Im lezten buch marco polo im 16 capitel findt man geßchrieben daßs daß volckh in diser jnsul angama genant hab hundts haupt augen und zähn gleich wic die hundte und das es vaßt ungeßtalt leutt ßollen ßein und wildt wan ßy vaßt lieber menßchen flaißch eßsen dan ander flaißch den reißs eßsen ßy an brot ßtatt mit milch gekocht ßy petten apgötter an und haben allerley specerey faßt vil die bey jnen wachßen und frücht die den früchten in unßern landten vaßt ungleich ßollen ßein.
In the last book of Marco Polo in the 16th chapter it is written that the people of this island Angama have heads, eyes and teeth like dogs, and are much mis-shapen, and savage, for they prefer human flesh to other flesh. They eat rice cooked in milk instead of bread, worship idols, and various kinds of spices abound on the island, and fruits said to be very different from the fruits of our country.
This information is taken from Ramusio's version, III. 18.
die in dießen Jnßeln wonen habê ßchwenz gleich die thier wie ptholomeus ßchreibt in der ailfften tafel von aßia (I 42 s).
Those who live in these islands have tails like animals, as described by Ptolemy on tab. XI. of Asia (lib. VII., c. 2).
These are Ptolemy's "Satyrorum Insulae tres" "quarum incolae caudas habere dicuntur," at the opening of the Sinus Magnus (China Sea). They may be the Anamba Islands.
Insula Candyn (L 25 s).
diße jnßel candyn mit ßambt den andern jnßulen ßo java minor und angama und neucuran pentham seilan mit sa@bt der hohen jndia Sant thomas landt ligen ßo vaßt gegen mittag daßs der polus articus daßelbßt mimmer mer mag geßehen werden aber ßy ßehen ein ander geßtirn geheißßen antarcticus, daßs macht daßs daßßelb landt ligt recht fußs gegon fußs gegen unßer landt über und wen wir tag haben ßo haben ßy nacht und ßo uns die Son undergeht ßo haben ßy jren tag, und das halb thail des geßtirns das under uns ißt das wir nit ßehen das ßehen ßy, daßs macht daßs alles daßs die welt mit ßambt dem waßßer von rondter formb von Got geßchafen ißt ßo beßchreibt Johannes de Mandavilla den lies in ßein buch am dritten theil ßeiner moerfahrt.
This island Candyn, together with the other islands, Java minor, Angama Neucuran, Pentham and Seilan, together with High India, the country of St. Thomas, are situated so far to the south that the Polus Arcticus is no longer visible. They see, however, another star called Antarcticus. This is because this country lies foot against foot with respect to our land, and when it is day with us they have night, and when the Sun sets with us they have their day, and that half of the stars, which are beneath us, and not visible to us, are visible to them. All this is because God has created the world together with the water of a round shape, as described by Johannes de Mandavilla in the third part of bis voyage (C 17).
Candyn is usually identified with Odorico's Dondin or Duarte Barbosa's Dandon (Andam). Dr. Hamy (`Études,' p. 162) identifies this island with Ombira, S. of the Moluccas; Romanet du Caillaud with the Philippine Islands; and A. Gummé (`Le Dondin et les Philippines,' Barc., 1897) with Ceylon or one of the Sunda Islands. On the Genoese Pitti Palace Map (1457) we read that a monster fish was taken in the Indian Ocean, at Candia, and taken to Venice. May not this Candia be identified with Candyn?
dißer jnßell ßindt zehen gehaißen maniole daßelbßt mag kain ßchiff faren das eißen an hat umb deßs magnet willen der daßelbßt wechßt (K 5 s).
There are ten of these islands called Maniole. No ship having iron in it dare navigate near them because of the magnet which is found there.
Ptolemy (VII. 2) has "Maniolae insulae decim, quarum incolae sunt anthropophagi, in his gignitur magnes." These Magnet Islands of Ptolemy, however, are placed in the Sinus Gangeticus, whilst Behaim's legend is shifted to the east of the mainland.
On fabulous Magnet Rocks, to be dreaded by mariners, because on approaching them the iron nails flew out, and the ship fell to pieces, see Peschel's essay in `Abhandlungen zur Erd- und Völkerkundes,' Leipzig, 1877, p. 44.
argira (L 3 s), Argyra, the Silver country (Ptol VII 2).
Crisis (L 8), Chryse, the Gold Island (Ptol VII 2).
thilis (L 12), Tylos, the Island of Pearls (Ptol VI 7).
Ptolemy's Argyra is Arakan, the Chryse or Aurea Chersonesus, the Malay Peninsula, and Tylos, an island in the Gulf of Persia. The last, which according to Pliny (VI 32) was famous for its pearl fishery, is no other than Bahrein.
Isidor of Seville (see Miller VII, Tafel 2) places the three islands beyond Taprobana, in the Oceanus orientalis.
Cipangu jnßula (L 23), Japan. There is a royal tent. At its northern extremity are shown a moscat nußwalt (nutmeg forest) and a pfeffer walt (Pepper forest).
The following legends are on the Island itself :
Cipangu jnßula hat ein beßondern konik und ßprach betetd apgötter an.
Cipangu do wächßt vil gold.
Cipangu di edelßt und reichßt jnßel in oriente von ßpecerei und edelßtein voll hot umfang bei 1,200 meilen.
The island Cipengu has a King and language of its own; the in- habitants worship idols.
Cipangu where grows much gold.
Cipangu is the most noble and richest island in the east, full of spices and precious stones. Its compass is 1,200 miles.
Off the southern extremity we read :
jn dißer jnßul do wechßt gold und gewürz ßtauden.
In this island are found gold and shrubs yielding spices.
Off the east coast is the following legend :
diße jnßel zipangu ligt in orient der welt daßs volk afn landt peth abgötter an. Jr konik ißt niemand underthan jn der Insel wechßt übertrefflich vil goldts auch edelgeßtein perlein oriental, dißs ßchreibt marco polo von venedig im 3 buch.
This island Zipangu lies in the east of the world. The inhabitants worship idols. The King is subject to no one. In the island is found exceeding much gold and likewise precious stones and pearls. This is stated by Marco Polo of Venice in his 3rd book.
The long legend (F G 1 s) on Behaim's globe is all we know about one Bartolomeo Fiorentino, who claims to have travelled for twenty-four years in the East, and who, on his return to Venice in 1424, is said to have rendered an account of his adventures to Pope Eugene IV. I am inclined to doubt the veracity or authenticity of this narrative. Eugen IV. only became Pope in 1431, but as he was a native of Venice, this Florentine adventurer may have met him there. It is, however, quite incredible that a merchant practically acquainted with the eastern spice trade should state that the spices, on their way to Venice, successively passed Java Major, Seilan, "where St. Thomas is buried," Aurea Chersonesus, Taprobana, Aden and Cairo. Nor is it likely that spices intended for England and France were sent by the overland route through Germany. Already in 1315, if not earlier, Genoese vessels employed by Florentine merchants traded with Antwerp,(1) and three years later five Venetian galleys laden with spices and drugs arrived at that port. In 1320 letters of protection were granted to Venetian vessels sailing for Antwerp or Bruges, and in 1332 the Great Council of Venice ordered that carriage overland should be permitted only in case the sea-route should be unsafe (Marin, `Com. de'Veneziani,' V., p. 309). Of course, spices intended for Germany were sent at that time from Venice across the Alps to Augsburg or Nuremberg.
jtem eßs ißt zu wißßen daßs die specerey die in den jnßeln in jndien in orienten in manicherley hendt verkaufft würdt ehe ßy heraus kumpt in unßer landt.
1 erßtlich die inwohner der jnßul genant Java maior die kauffen ßy in den andern jnßeln da ßy geßambelt württ bey ihren nachpaurn und verkauffon ßy in ir Jnßel.
2. Zum andern die von der jnßel seilan do st thomas begraben ligt kauffen die specerey in der jnßel java und bringen ßy in ir jnßel.
3. Zum dritten jn der jnßel Ceylon und Seilan würdt ßy wider entladen vegold und verkaufft den kaufleuten aus der jnßell aurea chersonesus do würt ßy entladon.
4. Zum vierten die kaufleut der jnßel taprobana genannt kaufen und bezohlen die specerey daßelbßt und bringens in ir jnßel.
5. Zum fünften die heyden machmet gelauffen ko@en außs dem landt aden dahin und kaufens und verzohlens und fürens in ir landt.
6. Zum 6ten die von algeyro kauffens und fürens über mõer und fürtters über land.
7. Zum 7 ßo kaufens die Venediger und andere.
8. Zu 8 so würdt ßy in venedig wider verkauft den teuschen und verzolt.
9. zu 9 zu frankfurt prugk und andern ortten.
10. zum 10ten in engellandt und frankreich.
11. Zum 11 so kummen ßy erßt in der kre@er hendt.
12. [Zum 12. ßo von den kreinern kauffens die von den die Spezerey gebraucht würt, dabey ßoll jederman vermerkhen die großen zoll und den gewin.(2)] die 12 malen auf die ßpecerey geht und zu mermalen von zehen pfundten eins mueßs geben zu zoll darbey zu verßtehen ißt das jn den landt inorienten faßt vil mißs wachßen und wolfeil mußs ßein und das nit wunder wer man wis ßy by enßs den goldt geleich dis ßindt die wortt mißter bartolomei florentini der aus jndien kommen was anno 1424 und eugenio den vierten babßt zu venedig erzelt was er in 24 jaren in orient geßehen und erfaren hat.
Item, be it known that the spices pass through several hands in the islands of oriental India before they reach our country.
1. First, the inhabitants of the island called Java Major buy them in the other islands where they are collected by their neighbours, and sell them in their own island. 2. Secondly, those from the island Seilan, where St. Thomas is buried, buy the spices in Java and bring them to their own island.
3. Thirdly. In the Island Ceylon or Seilan they are once more unloaded, charged with Customs duty, and sold to the merchants of the island Aurea Chersonesus, where they are again unladen.
4. Fourthly, the merchants of the island Taprobana buy the spices there, and pay the Customs duties, and take them to their island.
5. Fifthly, the Mohammedan heathen of Aden go there, buy the spices, pay the Customs and take them to their own country.
6. Sixthly, those of Cairo buy them, and carry them over the sea, and further overland.
7. Seventhly, those of Venice and others buy them.
8. Eighthly, they are again sold in Venice to the Germans, and customs are paid.
9. Ninthly, at Frankfurt, Bruges and other places.
10. Tenthly, in England and France.
11. Eleventh, thus at last they reach the hands of the retail traders.
12. Twelfthly, those who use the spices buy them of the retail dealers, and let the high Customs duties and profits be borne in mind which are levied twelve times upon the spices, the former amounting on each occasion to one pound out of every ten. From this it is to be understood that very great quantities must grow in the East, and it need not be wondered that they are worth with us as much as gold. These are the words of Mr. Bartolomeo of Florence, who came out of India in 1424, and told Pope Eugene IV. at Venice what he had seen and experienced in twenty-four years.
The following information is derived exclusively from Ptolemy's geography :
sacha regio (H 41). The Sacae are the ancestors of the modern Kirghiz and lived in the Western Tien-shan and the Steppes to the west.
irmaus daß gebirg (H 38), mualis montes (H 55), pont mantes (H 45); Imaus mons, the western Himalaya and the northern extension as far as the Tien-shan.
comade (H 37), Comedae, to the east of Bactriana.
bilto (H 36), Byltae, represented by the mod. Balbi on the upper Indus, within the Himalaya.
comena (H 29) (comau of Ghil), Comari, on the Yaxartes.
montes lapidio (H 40), Turris lapidea, with a picture of the tower, far away, (I 28) still known as Tashkurghan, "Stone Tower," on the route from Badakhshan to Kashghar.
zithia (I 55), Scythia.
Sithia ultra ume mõtem (H 47), Scithia extra Imaum, Chinese Turkestan.
rectoseres (H 51), Tectosaces, a tribe far to the north of the Iaxartes.
tapiires (H 43), Tapuraei, north of the Iaxartes.
de morides (I 55), (Jom and Ghil: oehardo), occa (I 55), orazdes (I 47), (Ghil: oechardo), the Oechardes of Ptolemy, conjectured to be the Tarim.
auraciarn montes (I 51), (Jom and Ghil: aus Scoram); Auzaciorum montes, perhaps part of the Tien-shan.
secarum regio (I 44), Serica regio, i.e. Northern China.
anam montes (I 58), Jom and Ghil: umibi mento; Anniba montes, to the N. of Serica, part of the Tien-shan.
tasy montes (I 43), Casii montes, the mountains of the Casii, a tribe bordering on Kashmir.
muri montes (I 46) Ghil: camuri m.; Asmirei montes, in Kashmir.
bautisig fl., baungs fl. (I 41 and 43) Jom and Ghil call it Rüsig fl. Bautisus flumen. This river flows through the country of the Bautae (Bhota, i.e., Tibetans), and may be the Upper Brahmaputra.
octocora regio (I 36), Ottorocora. Uttara Kura, a mythical region of the Hindus, where spring is perennial. stotoras (I 36), Ottorocoras mons, strangely mutilated.
On the Paris facsimile the rivers flowing into the hyrkanische mer from the east are called Jemba, Sir and Amu, and the town near the mer is called Chiwa. These names are not to be discovered on the original at Nürnberg, nor are they given by Jomard or Ghillany, and I have therefore omitted them. The Amo fl. (Amu) is already named on the Catalan map (1375).
badriani (G 44), Bactriana, Ptol VI 11.
tarißpa (G 42), Zarispa, Ptol VI 11.
alexandria (G 43), Alexandria Oxiana, Ptol VI 12, on Jom and Ghillany's facsimiles a second Alexandria - Alexandria zeluma (ultima) - is shown as lying to the south of Alexandria Oxiana. They omit clementi (clemenfu, H 41).
Sago and Sagoi gebürg (G 45), the latter only given by Jom and Ghil, may be identified with Sogdii montes of Ptolemy (VI 12).
dogum (G 44), M. Polo I 32. Yule reads Dogana and identifies it with a village Dehana in the Ghori district.
balach (G 37), M. Polo I 32, also Balk on the Amu (G 42), the mod. Balkh.
Balaßchan (G 37), M. Polo I 34, Badakhshan.
baßcia (G 39), M. Polo I 35, a district on the road from Badakhshan to Kashmir.
focan (G 39), vocany (H 26), M. Polo I 37: Wakhan.
panan or kanan (I 40), M. Polo I 37, should be pamer, and represents the Pamir Plateau.
beloro (G 41), M. Polo I 37: Bolor Tagh, the mountains between the Hindu Kush and the Tien-shan.
Samarcan (G 33), M. Polo I 39: Samarkand, placed by Behaim in the middle of Persia!
crase (H 45), on the site of Ptolemy's Cyroschata.
corpari (G 40).
danco (G 38).
bari (G 38).
inßim (G 42).
onejam (G 50), with a tall man and two boys near him. Can this be the "Unccan" (Vang-Khan) whom Marco Polo identified with Prester John!
Marco Polo's Turkestan extends from Samarkand in the west to Lop in the east.
turkeßtana (G 46) is shown as a town and not as the name of a country.
The towns of Cascar (Kashghar) and Carchan (Yarkand) are omitted on the globe, but the following legend referring to the inhabitants has found a place there (M. Polo I 40) :
hie wonê leut di haben großß füßß (I 51).
Here live people who have big (swollen) feet.
Koan and kotan fl. (H 32), mod. Khotan. M. Polo does not mention a river.
pagu (J 45) which Pipino (I 42) calls more correctly peyn, has recently been identified by Dr. Stein at Ulum Tali, between Khotan and Kiria.
lop (H 41), a station near Lobnor.
The following legends refer to the great desert of Gobi (M. Polo I 44) :
diße waltung grenzt an daß tramotana und ißt breit etli tagreiß und 360 tagreiß lang (H 56).
This forest (desert) borders upon the tramontana and is several days across and 360 days' journey in length.
Jom and Ghil have "wildnus" (desert) instead of "waltung."
Marco polo võ venedig jm erßten puch in dê XLIIII. capitel ßagt daß diße welter man in einen ganzen Jar von orient bis an occidento keinen mag durch zihen wan ßi hebt ßich an in reußßen negarten und weit bis in one gen cathai (H 58).
Marco Polo in the 44th chapter of his first book (Pipino's version) tells us that these forests cannot be traversed from east to west in a year, for they begin at Novgorod in Russia and extend far towards Cathai.
The extent of this desert is much exaggerated by M. Polo as a glance at a map shows. He does not speak of forests or woods, but of a wildness or desert.
The name Tartaria is inserted no less than eleven times between the River Don and the extreme east of Asia (F-K, between 42 and 56).
dis ißt das lant das dê großen tamerlan hat zugehert ein herr in tataria (G 56).
This is the country which belonged to the great Tamerlan, Lord of Tartary.
Timur Lenk, popularly known as Tamerlan, made himself master of Transoxiana, in 1369, choosing Samarkand as his capital. At his death, in 1405, his empire extended from the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, far into Asia. tangut das konikreich in tartaria (J 56), Tangut a kingdom in Tartary.
tangut regio (I 41), tanguth (J 50).
daß groß gebirg deß landes tangu (K 54), the big mountains of the country of Tangut.
Tangut is the Tartar name of the Chinese territory of Si-Hia, or "Western" Hia, which included part of Shensi, Ortu, Sha-cheu, Kukunor and the region towards the Lob nor. Jinghiz Khan, in 1226, destroyed this empire (Marco Polo, I 45).
There are miniatures of a royal tent, of two camels, and of two bears kissing each other.
tangut und camul do wil kein konik juncfrauê zu ehe haben do pringen dj mutter jhre tochter dê fremden kaufleuth zu welche mer man verführt hot dj helt man für die fünemßt tugend (I 50).
In Tangut and Kamul no king will take virgins in marriage. The mothers there offer their daughters to the foreign merchants, and she among them who has seduced most men is looked upon as the most virtuous.
Marco Polo refers to this custom in connection with Kamul (Pipino's version I 46), a town of Tangut, Tibet, (II 36) and Kaindu (II 37).
sakion (J 41), mod. Sha-chau (M. Polo I 45).
kamul (J 49), mod. Hami (M. Polo I 46).
succuß, succus (J 47), M. Polo I 48: Succuir, mod. Suh-chau.
heir wechßt reobarbara gar vil.
Here grows very much rhubarb.
kampion (J 47), the capital of Tangut, mod. Kanchau (M. Polo I 49).
ezina (J 50), a town on the river Ezina or Heishui, to the east of Suhchau (M. Polo I 50).
Egrimul, egrimul das konikreich (J 48), or, more correctly, Ergimul (M. Polo I 63), a kingdom in Tangut, indentified with mod. Liang-cheu, at the great wall.
singui, singrai (J 49), M. Polo I 63; mod. Si-ning, in western Kansu.
egrigaia (J 53), a district, M. Polo I 64, mod. Ning-hia.
calacia (J 52), a town in Egrigaia, at the foot of the Ala-shan.
karakorum (I 42), up to 1260 the capital of the Empire founded by Jinghiz Khan, and again of the Mongul dynasty expelled from China in 1368. Its ruins on the Orkhon were identified by Paderin in 1872 (M. Polo I 51).
bergi ein konikreich (K 53), bergi (K 50), with a royal tent.
daß groß gebirg bergi (K 59), the "big mountains of Bergi." M. Polo (Pipino's version I 62) wrote Bergi, but other versions call this region Bargu. It was named after the Barkut, a clan of Mongols, which lived on the Selenga and to the east of Lake Baikal. M. Polo calls this country a "plain sixty days in extent," and does not mention mountains, the existence of which may have suggested itself to the compiler of the globe by the name Bergi.
Of a legend to the north the first two words only-in dißen (in these)-are now legible.
On the Paris facsimile the names of Lena, Kolyma and Amur are given to three rivers flowing to the north. These names owe their existence to the want of intelligence of the copyist.
jn dißem kreis dißer wiltnißß fengt man dj hernpelz laßßiz zobel und mader und ander keßtlich fehwerk auch falken und ßeesalken da ißt es ßo kalt daß di leut ihre heußer machen in gruben unter daß ertreich und bedeckens mit pein [thier] heuten und steigen mit leidern in die heußer hinab (F 65).
Marco polo am 48 capittel jm drittê buch am endte ßchreibt vns daßs diße gegent tramontana in dem gepürg und wildnußs umb den meer ßtern ßey ein volkh wonhafft von tartaren genant permiani welche anbetten ain abgott von filz gemacht genant natigay dißes volks nahrung ißt pin ßum mer ziehen ßj nortwarts in das gepürg unter den stern polus articus genant und fahen die zobel mader und harmelin lassiz füchs und ander gethier daßs flaißch davon ißt ir speißs und die heute ßind ire klaider im sommer wonen ßy in den felsen umb der jegerey willen und ßo eß wintter will werden en ßo ziehen ßy gegen mittag wartz gegen reußßen und haben ire heußer in grueben under der erdten umb des kalten windes willen genant aquilon und bedeckhen die gruben mit gethierheutten und bei in ißt es im winter ßelten tag aber in summer verließe ßy der sunnen ßchein die ganze nacht nimmer als bei uns miten sumer ißt ßo wechßt bei inen ein wenig graßs und kreutter die ßy eßßen aber korn noch wein noch obs wil daßelbßt nit wachßsn umb des großen froßts willen (J-M 76°N.).
jtem als die reußßen in daßßelbe land wollen das kößtlich fehwerk zu holen ßo müßßen ßie auf ßchlitten fahren um der weßßer (moßßer) und tieffen snees willen welche von großsen hunden gezogen werden (K 50).
Within these barren grounds are caught ermines, weasels, sables and martens and other valuable peltry, also hawks and merfalcons. It is N2 so cold there that the people have their houses in pits underground, which they cover with hides, and into which they descend on ladders.
Marco Polo in the 48th chapter of the 3rd book, at the end, says that in this region Tramontana in the mountains and the barren grounds around the Pole Star, there lives a people called Permians by the Tartars, who worship a god made of felt and called Natigay. The food of this people is [here several words have been omitted] In the summer they move northwards into the mountains under the star called Polus arcticus, and catch sables, martens, ermines, weasels, foxes and other animals. The flesh of them is their food, and the skins furnish their clothing. In summer they live among the rocks for the sake of hunting, but on the approach of winter they move south, towards Russia. Their houses are in underground pits, because of the cold aquilon (North) wind, and they cover the pits with hides, and in winter daylight with them is rare, but in summer the sun shines the whole night through. When it is midsummer with us, a little grass and herbages grow with them, which they eat, but neither corn, nor wine, nor fruits grow there because of the great cold.
Item, when the Russians wish to go to this country, to fetch the valuable peltry, they are obliged to travel on sledges drawn by big dogs, because of the waters (swamps) and the deep snow.
Near the North Pole we read :
das lant ißt bewont im so@er (H 84).
hie fecht man weisen valken (J 85).
This country is inhabited in summer.
Here are caught white hawks.
The information given above has, in the main, been taken from chapters 48 and 49 of book III. of Pipino's version of Marco Polo. The God Natigai is referred to in Book I., c. 58, and the hawks are spoken of in Book I., c. 62. ldentical information on the Permiani is given on Fra Mauro's map. See also the legend on Mangu-Khan.
cathai (K 44), cathajo (K 43), cathai (M 40), the last an island in the eastern ocean.
hie hebt ßich dz lant cathaja (J 40).
Here begins the land cathaja.
Cathai was the mediæval name for northern China, thus called after the Khitai, a Manju tribe, on its northern border, and its rulers, as the Leao or Iron dynasty, up to 1223.
tenduk (J 37), og (J 38), and magog (J 34); see Prester John, pp. 95, 96.
sindichin (K 45), M. Polo I 65, mod. Slen-hwa-fu.
Jdißa (K 47), or Ydifa, Yelifu, probably in the mountains N.E. of Kalgan, ein böses gebirg (difficult mountain) on the globe.
cianga nor (J 31), the "white sea," now ruins of a royal palace at Chagan Balgasum, 30 m. north of Kalgan.
vandu (J 31), Pipino, I 66, spells more correctly Cyandu, Ramusio Xandu. A famous royal palace, built by Kublai Khan, formerly known as Cle-men-fu, which is clearly the clementi of the globe (H 41), which M. Polo refers to in book I 6.
kambalu (K 42), kazabula, a little to the west, a misprint, the famous capital of Cathai (M. Polo II 10), now known as Peking.
taidu (K 41), or more correctly Tatu, the Tartar quarter of Peking, to the north, not south as shown on the globe (M. Polo II 11).
giogiu (K 43), gingui (J 40), Pipino's Juju, south-west of Peking, now Cho-chau in Pechili.
tainfu (K 40), now Tai-yuen-fu in Shansi.
achbalak (K 45), M. Polo II 28, now Ching-ting in Chili.
pianfu (K 39), M. Polo II 29, now Pin-yang-fu in Shensi.
taigin (K 37), M. Polo II 30, now Tai-ching-kwan on the Hwang-ho in Shansi.
kacianfu (K 39), kocianfu (K 39), M. Polo II 32, now Pu-chau-fu in Shansi.
ciangli, cianglu (K 34), M. Polo II 50, now Tsi-nan-fu in Shantung.
quenzanfu (K 33), M. Polo II 33, now Si-ngan-fu in Shensi.
kunkin (K 32), M. Polo II 34, a district on the Wei or the Han in Shensi.
pazanfu (J 39), M. Polo II 49.
tagiu p. (I 38), Jom and Ghil: tagni p, tagui p. This seems to be Marco Polo's taigui (Pipino's version, II 30) or taigin (Ram. II 31), where Jinghis Khan was killed, and which Yule identifies with Ho-chau in Se-chwan.
konik v. mangi (K 35), King of Mangi in his royal tent, still traceable on the globe, but omitted on the Paris facsimile. Mangi or Manzi, corrupted from Men-tseu, i.e., Barbarians, is the name given by the Northern Chinese to their southern kinsmen (Cordier).
koilgan (K 31), M. Polo II 55 chorgungiu, now Hwai-ngan-dan on the Imperial Canal.
kain (K 30), M. Polo II 56, now Kao-yu-chau, east of the canal.
jang-gui (K 29), M. Polo II 57, now Yang-chau.
nang-hin (K 28), M. Polo II 57, now Ngan-king.
sajanfu (K 29), M. Polo II 58: sianfu, now Siang-yang-fu on the River Han.
The following legend may refer to the Nestorian Christian found by M. Polo (II 61) at Cygianfu (Ching-hian-fu on the Lower Yang-tze), although that important commercial town is not shown on the globe :
hie ßindt vil chrißten und heiden die apione beten gott im himel an (K 33).
Here are many Christians and heathen who worship idols and God in Heaven.
The legend is clearly corrupt; instead of apione we might read apgetter, but Jomard's reading (... die aber neben ihren Gott den Himmel anbeten ... that is, who in addition to their god worship heaven), is a clever emendation.
quinsai (K 27), M. Polo II 64, the capital of Mangi, now Nang-chau-fu.
tapinzu (K 27), M. Polo II 66, now Shao-ningfu.
gengui (K 30), M. Polo II 66, now Kiu-chau.
zengich (K 30), M. Polo II 66: zengian, now Sui-chang.
gioza (K 33), M. Polo II 66, now Kiu-chau.
quelinfu (K 25 and 30), M. Polo II 68, now Kien-ning-fu.
das konikreich conchia (K 29), M. Polo II 67, and koncha (K 31); this kingdom included the Kiang-si and Fokien.
fugiu (twice, K 28 and 30), M. Polo II 69, the capital of Koncha, mod. Fu-chau-fu.
nguin (K 27), Pipino's II 68: ungue, in Koncha, mod. Hu-kwan.
tingui (K 40), M. Polo II 70, mod. Ting-chau-fu in Fokien.
zaitun (K 26), M. Polo II 70, the famous seaport, now Chang-cheu.
achbalak macnis (K 31), M. Polo II 34: achbalach Mangis, i.e., the white town of Mangi, on the River Han in S. Shensi.
sidifu (K 31), M. Polo II 35, now Cheng-tu-fu, in Suchwan.
sindifu (J 40) is identical with the preceding.
citigui (J 41), M. Polo II 49: cinguy, now Siu-chau-fu, in Su-chwan.
orgui ein mächtig lant (K 49), orgui, a mighty country, is probably a corruption of M. Polo's Singuy.
tholoman (J 37, K 48) M. Polo II 48, the Kolo tribe, near Ta-ting-fu in Kwei-chau.
der berg tolamein (J 43), the mountains of Tholoman.
tolak ein konikreich (J 46), Jom and Ghil: tolor. Tolak a kingdom, a corruption of toloma (M. Polo II 48)?
anin (K 43), M. Polo II 47, in Pipino's and Ramusio's versions called Amu, Anin in that of Pauthier. Yule adopts Anin, which he identified with the Ho-nhi tribe on the road from Tong-king to Yun-nan.
kangigu (K 45), M. Polo II 46: canzige, according to Yule a district in East Tibet, but if we allow ourselves to be guided by the route followed by M. Polo (II 46) it should be sought for in the country of the Shan.
cardandam (K 28), M. Polo II 41, ardandan, a province of which
vorian (K 27), vocian unciam, is the capital, now Yung-chang in W. Yun-nan.
karaian (K 39), M. Polo II 39: cayrayam, and its capital jaci (K 38).
qebirg (mountains) chauran (J 35), Jom and Ghil: chabran.
karaim with ßaci beneath (K 41), far to the north, as well as
chatraia (J 42), with laci (J 45) all refer to the same province, subdivided into seven districts or kingdoms, which has been identified with mod. Yun-nan.
chatraia diß land hot VII. konik und ist unter den kaißer mango und petten all apgotter am (J 42).
Chatraia, this country has VII. kings and is under the Emperor Mango, and they worship idols.
Below laci (J 45) we read :
hie ßind vil krißten und heiden di apgettar an petten.
Here are many Christians and heathen who worship idols.
perlen fl. (J 42), Pearl river.
karaian, karazan (K 26), M. Polo II 40, on the coast, mod. Ta-li-fu.
kaindu (K 40), M. Polo II 38, the country of the Kain in Yun-nan.
in dißer gegent findt man vil perlein die man fißcht do fengt man auch allerlei schlangen und gewürm (J 30).
In this region are fished many pearls; various snakes and worms are likewise caught.
A second legend, conveying the same information is placed to the S.W. :
hie in dißen ßeen findt man vil perlein di man fißcht do fengt man mancherlei schlangen und gewürm (J 25).
In these lakes are found pearls which are fished; various kinds of snakes and worms are likewise caught.
Pearls are fished in a lake near Ning-yuen.
The serpents referred to are shown in miniatures.
The following legend far to the south nevertheless refers to Kaindu:
hie wechßt allerlei specerei di man da vernutzt und die keinen unßer landt gebracht wird (J 11).
Here grow various spices which are consumed locally and none of which are brought to our country.
thebet ein konikreich (K 39), thebett (J 34), thebet das gebirg (K 35), gebirg von thebett (J 31), Tibet, mountains of Tibet.
The following legend, much mutilated, has been restored from a similar legend on Waldseemüller's map of 1507 (M. Polo II 59) :-
hie f[indt man rohr] von x [spanne di rund u 15] schritt [lang] (J 36).
Here are found canes ten spans round and fifteen paces long.
Of another legend, placed near a lake called Coroma lacus on Waldseemüller's map of 1507 (J 27), only the following words are still legible :
vil long dj ....
The legend may have referred to the presence of the rhinoceros or unicorn in Mien (mod. Awa), which is not, however, named on the globe (M. Polo II 43). Another legend is of too general a tenour to be allotted to a particular district :
hirin ßind vil ßtädt und wälter von ßpecerej auxh vil konik und mancher lei landes (J 5).
Here are many towns and woods of spices, also many kings and various kinds of land.
The following are the rivers of Chatai and of Mangi :
quiian daß waßßer, quian fl, quinen (K 45-48), M. Polo II 35, 59, the Yangtsekiang.
brinß fl. (K 30), M. Polo II 38: brius, Kin-sha or Upper Yang-tse-kiang.
kirumaru (K 37), M. Polo II 31: caramoran, the Karamuran or Hwang-ho.
The following names are not mentioned by M. Polo:
jndia (K 29), jndie ptolemäus (K 27), jn hoch jndia (J 5), and jndia silva im orient (K 26).
Hoch jndia (Indian superior) is a term used vaguely by mediæval authors. On the Borgia map (1450) it begins beyond the Indus and includes St. Thomas' Land, but the mendicant friar, who wrote about the same time, shifts it far to the east, and makes it to include Mangi.
As to Indie ptolemäus I can give no explanation, unless ptolemäus stands for toloman.
Murr, instead of the unintelligible India silva im Orient of the original, ventures to emend: India sive pars Indie extra Gangem.
mazin, mazin (H 22), which Behaim places to the west of the Ganges, is in reality a contraction of Maha Chin, the "great China," the Macinus or Mangi of N. de Conti, the Mieng of M. Polo, the capital of which was Ava. birma (K 45).
sandula (K 41), a tributary of the Caramoran or Hwang-ho.
The following legend is placed immediately to the south of the mouths of the Ganges (H 19) :
jn dem buch geneßis findt man daßs dißs landt da der ganges laufft gehaißßen ißt hevilla da ßoll da ßoll wachßen daß beßt golt in der welt ißt jn der heilige geßchrift im 3 buch der konik in den 9 und 10 capitel ißt geßchriebê daßs konik salomon ßeine ßchiff hie her ßchicket und ließs holen dißes goldtes und kößtliche perlein und edelgestain von ophir gen jerußalem dißs landt gülat und ophir da der flußß ganges oder daß waßßer gion durch fleußt hat zusamm gehört.
In the Book of Genesis it is stated that this country through which flows the Ganges is called Havilla. The best gold in the world is said to grow there. In Holy Writ, in the 3rd book of Kings, chapters 9 and 10, it is written, that King Solomon sent his ships hither and had brought from Ophir to Jerusalem of this gold and valuable pearls and precious stones. This country of Gülat and Ophir, through which flows the river Ganges or the water of Gion, belonged together.
In Genesis ii. 11, we are told that the Pison "encompasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold." From the 1st (not the 3rd) Book of Kings we learn that the "navy of Tharshish" came from Ophir once every three years bringing gold and precious stones and other merchandise. Pearls are not mentioned. Havilah or Hevilka is called Evilath, of which the Gulat of the legend is a corruption, in the `Rudimentum novitiorum.' The Gihon (Gion) is not the Ganges, but the Nile (Gen. ii. 13), "which encompasseth the whole land of Ethiopia." Certain Fathers of the Church have identified Havilah with Ptolemy's Avalita, but I have never heard of Havilah and Ophir being placed in juxtaposition. Colonel C. R. Conder identifies the Gihon with the Araxes, the Pison with the Acampsis of Colchis; he places Havilah in Armenia, and Ophir in Southern Arabia.
The history of St. Thomas is referred to in several legends to be found upon our globe. This apostle is popularly supposed to have been martyred in India, and upon St. Thomas' Mount, near Madras, the supposed site of his martyrdom, a church has been built by the Portuguese. St. Thomas, however, never wore the crown of the martyr, but died a natural death at Edessa.(3) His supposed missionary activity has caused his name to be introduced into the history of the Three Kings, for he is supposed to have converted one of them, King Gathaspar or Caspar, who has been identified with Gundaphoras, a Parthian ruler at Peshawar.(4)
Maabar, ein konikreich (I 35). jn dißen konikreich war S. thomas mit ein pfeil erschoßßen.
Maabar, a kingdom.
In this kingdom St. Thomas was killed with an arrow.
Maabar lies on the S.E. coast of India, and in it is St. Thomé Mount. The information is from Marco Polo, III 27.
calmia (I 20 s), the Calamina of ecclesiastical tradition,(5) for an account of this Junta. He mentions Behaim as a member of it, and to him alone all later where St. Thomas was martyred and buried according to Mandeville. This fabulator places it in Maabar (Mabaron), but Behaim has shifted it to northern Coilur.
coilur (I 24 s), the koulam of Ramusio's version (III 25).
jn dißer jnßel coylur ißt sant thomas der zwelff bot gemartert vorden.
In this island Coilur St. Thomas the Apostle was martyred.
Coilur, the Coylû of Pipino's version of Marco Polo (III 31), is identified by Yule with Quillon. Neither Marco Polo nor Mandeville are responsible for the statement that St. Thomas was martyred at that place.
koulam, das konikreich (I J 8 s), is merely a duplication of Coilur derived from Ramusio's version of Marco Polo.
das lant wird genant egtißilla (I 27 s).
This country is called Egtisilla.
Egtisilla, or Eyrisculla, is referred to in John of Hildesheim's version of the "Three Kings" as an island where St. Thomas lies buried.
Sant jeremias ind vorredt der bibel daß appolonius biß in diß land gekomê ßei (H I 23).
St. Jerome in the introduction to the Bible says that Appolonius came to this country.
Appollonius, if his biographer Philostratus could be believed, was a contemporary of Jesus. St. Jerome is the famous reviser and translator of that version of the Bible known as the "Vulgata."
Fra Mauro (1457) has a legend to the same effect.
The three "holy kings" whose bones are exhibited to credulous visitors at Cologne Cathedral and whose memory is revived annually on Twelfth Day, were undoubtedly the "King of Tarshish and the Isles," and the "Kings of Sheba and Saba," of Psalm lxxii. It was not doubted that these "kings" were descended from the three wise men from the East, who, according to Matthew ii. 1-10, were guided by a star to Bethlehem, and there worshipped the new-born "King of the Jews." The Venerable Bede (died 735) already knew that the names of these "kings" were Caspar, Melchior and Balthasar. John of Hildesheim (died 1375) wrote a popular account of their story, which was first printed in German in 1480.1
Closely connected with the legend of the Three Kings is the reported existence of a powerful Christian Prince -Presbyter or Prester John-in the centre of Asia. This rumour first reached Europe through the Bishop of Gabala in 1145, and it was supposed that this Royal Priest was a direct successor or descendant of the Three Kings. Dr. Oppert has satisfactorily shown that this mysterious personage was Yeliutashe of the Liao Dynasty, which ruled in Northern China from 906 to 1125. Having been expelled by the Koreans, Yeliutashe went forth with part of his horde, and founded the Empire of the Kara Khitai, which at one time extended from the Altai to Lake Aral, and assumed the title of Korkhan. The King George in Tenduk, whom Marco Polo describes as a successor of Presbyter John, was actually a relative of this Yeliutashe who had remained in the original seats of the tribe not far from the Hwang-ho, and of Kuku-kotan, where the Kutakhtu Lama of the Mongols resided when Gerbillon visited the place in 1688.2 It was this King George whom Friar John of Montecorvino claims to have converted in 1292.
The Tarshish of the Psalmist must be sought in the East, in maritime India, and not at Tartessus in the West; Sheba was in Southern Arabia, and Saba on the authority of Marco Polo probably in Persia. "Saba Ethiopie," however, in course of time, was transferred to Abyssinia, and its Christian ruler was accepted as the veritable and most popular "Prester John." Friar John of Marignola (1338-53) is the first traveller who mentions an "African archpriest," and on a map of the world which Cardinal Guillaume Filastre presented in 1417 to the library of Reims we read "Ynde Pbr Jo" at the easternmost cape of Africa.3
On Behaim's globe the Three Kings are localised in Inner Asia, on the Indian Ocean and in East Africa (Saba).
daß konikreich tarßis (H 36).
tarsis (H 41), with a picture of a town.
der heiligen drei konik einer aus tarßis genant (H 40).
One of the Three Holy Kings of Tarsis, called ...
with a royal tent surmounted by a flag exhibiting three negro heads.
Far to the north are the Three Kings conversing with a traveller.
Tarsis (Tarssia) is shown on many mediæval maps in a similar position, for instance, on the Catalan map of 1375, where the three kings are shown on horseback about to start for Bethlehem. Haiton is the authority for placing Tarsis in this position.
The following legends refer to one of the kings reigning on the Indian ocean. Opposite the island of Taprobana we read :
der heiligen drei konik einer auß jndie (H 15).
One of the Three Holy Kings of India.
Beyond the Sinus magnus of Ptolemy is the following legend :
hie jn dißem gebirg ißt ein berg genent Vaus auf welchen noch ...
Here in these mountains is a mountain called Vaus, upon which ....
On this mountain, the Mons victorialis (called Mount Gybeit by John of Marignola) the Three Kings watched for the appearance of the star which, according to Balaam's prophecy (Numbers xxiv. 17), "should come out of Jacob," and which guided them to Bethlehem.
The third of the Holy Kings is located in East Africa, near the mouth of the Red Sea. Here is a royal tent with the following legend (F 10) :
das konikreich der heiligê drei konik einer von saba.
The kingdom of one of the Three Holy Kings, him of Saba.
Below this we read Saba (F 4), which clearly stands for Shoa or Shewá, and to the west is a picture of this Prester John of Abassia with a kneeling figure in front of him.
The following legends refer to Presbyter John.
Marco Polo (I 65) is the authority for the first of these legends, which locates the Presbyter in Tenduk (J 37), at Thian-te-kiang on the Hwang-ho, to the south-west of Kuku-khotan.
jn dißen land wohnt der großmechtig kaißer genant der meißter Johan der ein verweßer geßtelt ißt über daß konikreich di drei heil konik Jaspar balthaßar und melchior in morenland und ßeine nachkomê ßind gute krißten und vil konik di unter in ßind (I 37).
In this country resides the mighty Emperor known as Master John, who is appointed governor of the three holy kings Caspar, Balthasar and Melchior in the land of the Moors. And his descendants are good Christians, as are also many kings who are under them.
og (J 38) to the west and magog (J 34) to the south of Tenduk are described by Marco Polo as being subject to the Prester. These are the tribes of the Apocalypse (xx. 8), but Polo says that they are known to the natives as Ung and Mongul, that is, the Un-gut, a Turkish tribe, and Mongols.
To the east of Tenduk we read :
daß land gegen mitternacht regirt der kaißer mango kann von tattaria deß do ein reicher man ißt deß großen keißers meißter Johan von jndie ißt alßo ißt des großße koniks weib ein crißtin (J 36).
The country towards midnight is ruled by the Emperor Mangu, khan of Tartary, who is a wealthy man of the great Emperor, the Master John of India; the wife of the great King is likewise a Christian.
Mangu-khan ruled 1251-59. He was a grandson of Chinghiz-khan and Kublai's elder brother. The above information as well as that given in the remaining legends may have been taken from Mandeville (cc. 21,27), who himself is indebted to Haiton, Friar Odorico and others.
In the Sinus magnus of Ptolemy we read :
dißs mer land und ßtett gehert als den großzen kaißer prißter johan aus jndia (I 15).
This sea, land and towns all belong to the great Emperor Prester John of India.
Mandeville, c. 27, says that 72 provinces and kings were tributaries of Prester John, on the authority of an apocryphal letter supposed to have been sent to Manuel Commenus (1143-80), the Pope and others.
The legendary history of Alexander the Great has been ascribed (erroneously) to the learned Callisthenes, who wrote a work on the Wars of Alexander, only fragments of which have reached us. The legend originated probably at Alexandria, became popular, was translated into Latin, by Julius Valerius, at the beginning of the fourth century, and other languages. The oldest German versions by Lamprecht der Pfaffe (the Priest) and Rudolf of Ems, are of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. For a literary history of this legend, see Krumbacher, `Geschichte d. byzant. Litteratur,' Munich, 1897, p. 849-853.
porta deferi (F 43), only shown by Jom and Ghil, with a flag. The famous "Iron Gates" at Derbend, said to have been erected by Alexander as a defence against the Scythians, and destroyed by Tamerlan (comp. M. Polo I 14).
Alexander altar (F 46), Ptolemy's Alexandri arae,
biß an diß ßeile ißt der groß alexander komê und nit ferner gegen mitternacht (F 51).
As far as this column came Alexander the Great, and not further towards midnight.
The column, "Alexandri Columni" of Ptolemy III 5, is shown. Am. Marcellinus, XXII 8, also notices these apocryphal cairns or altars of Alexander.
hie ßtryt alexander mit dariuß (G 29).
Here fought Alexander with Darius.
Gaugemela, where the final battle overthrowing Darius was fought in 331 B.C., is in Assyria, and not in Carmania, as shown on the globe.
die paminen [päume von] ßuñe und mont di mit konik alexander reden (H 30).
The trees of the Sun and Moon which speak with King Alexander.
These are the "Speaking Trees" questioned by Alexander on reaching the Indus. They are inserted as "Oraculum Solis et Lunae" upon St. Jerome's map of Palestine (Miller, "Mappa mundi," III., p. 13) as "Arbores solis et lunae" upon the Beatus map of 776, and upon many later maps.
(1) So says Pegolotti, who resided there as a partner of the Bardi of Florence. back
(2) Words within brackets omitted on Paris facs., but given by Murr. back
(3) Thilo, `Acta S. Thomae apostoli,' Leiden, 1823. R. A. Lipsius, `Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten,' Leipzig, 1883, I., 223. back
(4) Gutschmid, Rhein, `Mus. f. Philologie,' 1864. back
(5) Pseudo Isidor, `De vita et obitu ... Sanctorum.' (Monum. S. Patr. orthod., Basilea, 1539, p. 598.) back
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Last modified: Tue Nov 7 00:05:10 CET 2006